War weariness and destruction caused by the intensity of the two World Wars persuaded the Europeans to search for an immediate and lasting solution to bring together the allies and adversaries among the countries of Europe in a regional security arrangement. The European Union (EU) as a symbol of regional unity, cooperation and integration has faced uncertainties and instability over the years. Indeed, Brexit can be seen as the culmination of a wave of secessionist and nationalist tendencies that have challenged European integration now more than ever. The result of the referendum of 23 June of the United Kingdom (UK) sent a great shockwave across the territory covered by the EU. It was predicted that the proposal of Britain''''s withdrawal from the EU would be dismissed by an agreement based on David Cameron''''s four-point plan to renegotiate the terms of Great Britain''''s EU membership, but 52 percent of British voters agreed to the Brexit, and thus ended their country''''s 42-year membership of the European Union.
The assumption is that political culture as a part of a shared national identity of a state shape its views on national interest which in turn guide its policy preferences, policymaking, and policy implementation in the various foreign policy issue areas. In this context, our research questions are: How has British political culture influenced its orientations and policies towards the European Union? 2. To what extent will the Brexit affect the UK foreign policy towards the EU in the future? In the research hypothesis, the authors claim that British political culture with its peculiar conservative attribute has adversely affected its European foreign policy, culminating in its withdrawal from the EU. Using the theoretical framework of constructivism, they rely on the method of conceptual content analysis to examine official statements ade by the British leadership and discuss the findings of referendum and public opinion surveys related to Brexit to find answers to the research questions.
Britain is one of the victorious countries in the Second World War, has an imperial background and is an island-state located on the periphery of the European continent— all these factors have influenced British politics to this day. The perception of being a powerful country with a rich history has had a significant impact on the foreign policy behaviors of the UK, and consequently has contributed to the unwillingness of British policymakers to commit their country to the ideas and actions which might diminish its role and standing in the international system. Today, as an island nation cut off from the continental Europe, England together with its much smaller overseas territories around the world, represents only a small fragment of a former empire that disintegrated a long time ago, but most British people evidently are unwilling to forget the glory of its past. Accordingly, the UK has not yet completed its process of full decline and has aspiration of somehow regaining its hold on its vast former colonies and dependent territories. It is a contradiction that needs to be examined closely. Its national identity is muddled because of how the British political elites and ordinary citizens view their country’s standing in the world today. They perceive the UK as a greater power than it really is.
The results of Brexit referendum indicated that most British public and political elites believed that their country would be in a more favorable position if it were to be less involved in the mainland Europe. As a result, they accepted the Brexit which reflected some kind of self-interested isolationism and a desire to leave Europe''''s problems to the rest of the EU members. Here, selective isolationism refers to a preference to disassociate the UK from the EU crises which might require coordinated policies to deal with unusual situations. Interestingly, this type of isolationism does not include issues related to the Britain’s interests in the Middle East and similar non-European issues which do not impose disproportionate financial burden on the country. Therefore, the UK continues to increase its political power by walking alongside the powerful European players if the collective security arrangement does not limit its freedom of action to pursue its own foreign policy objectives and priorities. British political culture has had a significant impact on the formulation of this country''''s foreign policy towards the EU. However, Brexit does not mean that this former imperial power has abandoned its efforts to reach the position of a great power with the ability to influence world politics. |
الف) فارسی
- آجیلی، هادی؛ مهرداد فلاحی برزگی. ( 1396) «برگزیت و پیامدهای سیاسی و اقتصادی آن،» فصلنامه پژوهش‌های سیاسی و بین‌المللی، 8: 32: 33-1. در: https://jpir.takestan.iau.ir/article_532327.html
- آقامحمدی، ابراهیم. (1395) «امکان‌سنجی بکارگیری نظریه‌های همگرایی در تحلیل بحران اروپا»، فصلنامه مطالعات روابط بین‌الملل، 35، 9: 43-9. در: https://journals.iau.ir/article_526854.html
- آقایی، سید داوود؛ الهام رسولی. (1388) «سازه‌انگاری و سیاست خارجی جمهوری اسلامی ایران در قبال اسرائیل،» فصلنامه سیاست، 39، 1: 16-1. در: https://jpq.ut.ac.ir/article_20142.html
- بدیع، برتران. (1387) جامعه‌شناسی دولت، ترجمه احمد نقیب‌زاده. تهران: انتشارات قومس.
- خراسانی، رضا. (1387) «جایگاه و نقش قدرت فرهنگی در سیاست خارجی و تأثیر آن بر روند تحولات جهانی»، فصلنامه علوم سیاسی، 41، 1: 134-118. در: https://ensani.ir/fa/article/84106
- روحی دهبنه، مجید. (1388) «رابطه فرهنگ و دیپلماسی در سیاست خارجی فرانسه،» فصلنامه سیاست خارجی، 23، 4: 936-901. در: https://www.magiran.com/paper/727220
- زیباکلام، صادق؛ سید مهدی میربد. (1389، پاییز) «بررسی تطبیقی انگاره‌های انسان‌شناسانه در ادبیات و تأثیر آن بر فرهنگ سیاسی؛ مورد فرانسه و انگلستان قرن 19)،»فصلنامه سیاست، 40، 3: 170-151. در: https://jpq.ut.ac.ir/article_29567.html
- سازمند، بهاره. (1388) منطقه‌گرایی و هویت مشترک در جنوب شرق آسیا. تهران: دفتر مطالعات سیاسی و بین‌المللی.
- سریع‌القلم، محمود. (1387) فرهنگ سیاسی ایران. تهران: پژوهشکده مطالعات فرهنگی و اجتماعی .
- صالحی، حمید و دیگران. ( 1397) «تأثیر برگزیت بر سیاست داخلی و خارجی انگلیس،» فصلنامه راهبرد سیاسی، 2، 5: 131-101. در: https://www.rahbordsyasi.ir/article_140938.html
- متقی، ابراهیم؛ حجت کاظمی. (۱۳۸۶) «سازه‌انگاری، هویت زبان و سیاست خارجی جمهوری اسلامی ایران،» فصلنامه سیاست، 37، 4: 237-209. در: https://jpq.ut.ac.ir/article_19248.html
- موسوی‌زاده، علیرضا. ( 1392) جریان‌شناسی احزاب و نخبگان سیاسی در بریتانیای مدرن قرن بیست‌ویکم، کتاب اروپا دوازدهم، ویژه احزاب و جریان‌های اروپایی. تهران: ابرار معاصر.
- نظری، علی اشرف. (۱۳۹۹) «پی‌جوی آینده در گذشته و بازنمایی امر نوستالژیک در ایران معاصر»، پژوهشنامه علوم سیاسی، 15، 3: 236-201، <DOI:10.22034/ipsa.2020.412>.
- نقیب‌زاده، احمد. (1387، پاییز) «تأثیر فرهنگ ملی بر سیاست خارجی: مورد جمهوری اسلامی ایران،» فصلنامه سیاست خارجی، 13، 3: 650-637. در: http://ensani.ir/fa/article/download/97886
- واعظ‌زاده، حسام‌الدین. (1395) «جایگاه نظریه ژئوپلیتیک مکیندر در سیاست‌های جهانی بریتانیا،» فصلنامه سیاست، 46، 2: 551-531. در: https://jpq.ut.ac.ir/article_57947.html
ب) انگلیسی
- Aggestam, Lisbeth. (2005) A European Foreign Policy? Role Conceptions and the Politics of Identity in Britain, France and Germany, PhD Dissertation, Department of Political Science, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden. Available at: https://swepub.kb.se/showrecord (Accessed 5 May 2004).
- Aqui, Lindsay. (2019, March 4) Report: Contingency Planning- The 1975 and 2016 Referendums. Cambridge, UK: Bennett Institute for Public Policy, University of Cambridge. Available at: https://www.bennettinstitute.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/ pdf (Accessed 10 June 2022).
- Avery, Graham. (2016) “Scotland and the European Union,” Policy Brief, European Policy Centre in the Archive of European Integration, University of Pittsburgh (aei.pitt.ed). Available at: http://aei.pitt.edu/id/eprint/77651 (Accessed 22 March 2020).
- Brinkley, Douglas. (1962) “Dean Acheson and the ‘Special Relationship- The West Point Speech of December 1962,” The Historical Journal 1990: 599-608, <DOI:10.1017/S0018246X00013546>.
- Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2016, January 8) “Angle,” Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Angle-people (Accessed 23 July 2020).
- British Council. (2017) “The English Effect: The Impact of English, What it’s Worth to the UK and Why it Matters to the World,” British Council 2013/D096 (britishcouncil.org). Available at: https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/ files/english-effect-report-v2.pdf (Accessed 10 June 2022).
- Chernyshev, Maxim V. (2017) “The Concept of Atlanticism in Time Perspective: Historical Trends and Modern Interpretations,” Bulletin of the Udmurt University (UDC)2, 2: 202-210. Available at: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-concept-of-atlanticism-in-time-perspective-historical-trends-and-modern-interpretations (Accessed 10 June 2022).
- Christiansen, Thomas, et al. (2001) The Social Construction of Europe. New York, NY: Sage, <DOI:1080/135017699343450>.
- Churcill, Winston. (1948) "Winston Churchill, Speech Delivered at the University of Zurich, 19 September 1946," in Council of Europe. (nd) Council of Europe (int). Available at: https://rm.coe.int/16806981f3 (Accessed 20 March 2020).
- Clarke, Harold D., et al. (2017) “Why Britain Voted for Brexit: An individual-Level Analysis of the 2016 Referendum Vote,” Parliamentary Affairs 70, 3: 439-464, <DOI:10.1093/pa/gsx005>.
- Council of Europe. (nd) "Winston Churchill, Speech Delivered at the University of Zurich, 19 September 1946," Council of Europe (coe.int). Available at: https://rm.coe.int/16806981f3 (Accessed 20 March 2020).
- Curtice, John. (2016, April-June) “A Question of Culture or Economics? Public Attitudes to the European Union in Britain,” The Political Quarterly 87, 2: 209-218, <DOI:10.1111/1467-923X.12250>.
- Eckhardt, (2002) “Review- Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organisations Across Nations,” Australian Journal of Management 27, 1: 89-94, <DOI:10.1177/031289620202700105>. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/031289620202700105?journalCode=auma (Accessed 14 June 2022).
- Gamble, Andrew. (2021) “The Brexit Negotiations and the Anglosphere,” The Political Quarterly 92, 1: 108-112, <DOI:1111/1467-923X.12957>.
- Gaston, Sophie; and Sacha Hilhorst. (2018) “Nostalgia as a Cultural and Political Force in Britain, France, and Germany... At Home in One’s Past,” Demos (demos.co.u). Available at: http://www.demos.co.uk/wp-content/ uploads/2018/05/At-Home-in-Ones-Past-Report.pdf (Accessed 10 June 2022).
- Geddes, Andrew. (2004) The European Union and British Politics. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Gibbins, Justin. (2014) “The European Communities Membership Referendum,” in Britain, Europe, and National Identity: Self and Other in International Relations. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 35-79, <DOI:10.1057/9781137376343_3>.
- Heath, Anthony F.; and Jane Roberts. (2008) “British Identity: Its Sources and Possible Implications for Civic Attitudes and Behaviour,” Citizenship: Our Common Bond, Lord Goldsmith’s Citizenship Review, 84-87. Available at: https://www.temaasyl.se/Documents/Offentliga%20dokument%20%C3%B6vrig a%20EU/Citizenship%20Our%20Common%20Bond.pdf (Accessed 20 March 2020).
- Hofstede, (2001) Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. Thousands Oak, CA; Sage.
- Hofstede-Insights. (2020) “Country Comparison Tool: France and the UK.,” Hofstede-insights.com. Available at: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/ country-comparison-tool (Accessed 20 March 2020).
- Hopf, Ted. (1998) “The Promise of Constructivism in International Relations Theory,” International Security 23, 1: 171-200, <DOI:10.1162/isec.23.1.171>.
- Idowu, Samuel O. (2009) “The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,” in Samuel O. Idowu and Walter Leal Filho, eds. Global Practices of Corporate Social Responsibility, 11-35. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, <DOI:1007/978-3-540-68815-0_1>.
- Iovan, Marţian. (2015) “The Political Culture; Politicial Socialization and Acculturation,” Journal of Legal Studies16, 29: 26-47. Available at: https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=468988 (Accessed 20 March 2020).
- Jolivett, Catherine. (2017) Landscape, Art, and Identity in 1950s Britain. London: Routledge.
- Kiss, Zsolt; and Alison Park. (2014) “National Identity: Exploring Britishness,” NatCen Social Research. Available at: https://www.bsa.natcen.ac.uk/media/ 38984/bsa31_national_identity.pdf (Accessed 20 March 2020).
- Libecap, Gary D. (2012, January 19) "The Bright Side of British Colonialism," Hoover Institution Defining Idea Available at: https://www.hoover.org/research/bright-side-british-colonialism (Accessed 20 March 2020).
- Medrano, Juan Diez. (2021) “Framing Europe,” in Framing Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, <DOI:1515/9781400832576>.
- Miller, William Lockley, et al. (1996) Political Culture in Contemporary Britain. London, UK: Clarendon Press.
- Modiano, Marko. (2023) “The Future of British English in the European Union: What Standard Will the EU Adopt in the Post-Brexit Era?"English Today 39, 2. 149-154, <DOI:10.1017/S0266078422000244> Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/english-today/article/future-of-british-english-in-the-european-union (Accessed 19 September 2022).
- O’Connor, Vivienne. (2012, February 17) “Common Law and Civil Law Traditions,” Social Science Research Network (com). Available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2665675; <DOI:10.2139/ssrn.2665675>.
- Portes, Jonathan. (2016) “Immigration, Free Movement and the EU Referendum,” National Institute Economic Review 236: 14-22, <DOI:1177/002795011623600103>.
- Reynolds, David. (1985) “A Special Relationship? America, Britain, and the International Order since the Second World War,” International Affairs 62, 1: 1-20, <DOI:2307/2618063>.
- Roudgar, Iraj. (2021, May 7) “Theory of Political Culture the Origin of Conflict in the International System,” Social Science Research Network (ssrn.com). Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm? abstract_id=3841791 <DOI:10.2139/ssrn.3841791> (Accessed 18 July 2022).
- Shi, Tongyun. (2008) “British National Identity in the 21st Century,” Intercultural Communication Studies 17, 1: 102-114. Available at: https://www-s3-live.kent.edu/s3fs-root/s3fs-public/file/11-Tongyun-Shi.pdf (Accessed 10 June 2022).
- Stewart, Heather, et al. (2018) “David Cameron Resigns after UK Votes to Leave European Union,” The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/24/david-cameron-resigns-after-uk-votes-to-leave-european-union(Accessed 10 June 2022).
- Tugendhat, Christopher; and William Wallace. (1988) Options for British Foreign Policy in the 1990s, Chattam House Papers, 44. London: Routledge, for the Royal Institute of International Affairs.
- Young, John W. (1985) “Churchill's ‘No ‘to Europe: The ‘Rejection ‘of European Union by Churchill's Post-War Government, 1951–1952,” The Historical Journal 28, 4: 923-937. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/historical-journal/article/abs/ churchills-no-to-europe-the-rejection-of-european-union-by-churchills-postwar-government (Accessed 11 February 2019).
- Zakaria, Fareed. (2019, March 14) “Opinion- Brexit will Mark the End of Britain’s Role as a Great Power,” The Washington Post. Available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/globalopinions/brexit-will-mark-the-end-of-britains-role-as-a-greatpower/2019/03/14/5df139fa-468c-11e9-8aab95b8d80a1e4f_story.html (Accessed 20 March 2020).
|
